Unveiling genome plasticity and a novel phage in Mycoplasma felis: Genomic investigations of four feline isolates.

Mycoplasma felis has been isolated from diseased cats and horses, but to date only a single fully assembled genome of this species, of an isolate from a horse, has been characterized. This study aimed to characterize and compare the completely assembled genomes of four clinical isolates of M. felis from three domestic cats, assembled with the aid of short- and long-read sequencing methods. The completed genomes encoded a median of 759 ORFs (range 743-777) and had a median average nucleotide identity of 98.2 % with the genome of the available equid origin reference strain. Comparative genomic analysis revealed the occurrence of multiple horizontal gene transfer events and significant genome reassortment. This had resulted in the acquisition or loss of numerous genes within the Australian felid isolate genomes, encoding putative proteins involved in DNA transfer, metabolism, DNA replication, host cell interaction and restriction modification systems. Additionally, a novel mycoplasma phage was detected in one Australian felid M. felis isolate by genomic analysis and visualized using cryo-transmission electron microscopy. This study has highlighted the complex genomic dynamics in different host environments. Furthermore, the sequences obtained in this work will enable the development of new diagnostic tools, and identification of future infection control and treatment options for the respiratory disease complex in cats.

Expanding the known distribution of phascolartid gammaherpesvirus 1 in koalas to populations across Queensland and New South Wales.

Koala populations across the east coast of Australia are under threat of extinction with little known about the presence or distribution of a potential pathogen, phascolartid gammaherpesvirus 1 (PhaHV-1) across these threatened populations. Co-infections with PhaHV-1 and Chlamydia pecorum may be common and there is currently a limited understanding of the impact of these co-infections on koala health. To address these knowledge gaps, archived clinical and field-collected koala samples were examined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction to determine the distribution of PhaHV-1 in previously untested populations across New South Wales and Queensland. We detected PhaHV-1 in all regions surveyed with differences in detection rate between clinical samples from rescued koalas (26%) and field-collected samples from free-living koalas (8%). This may reflect increased viral shedding in koalas that have been admitted into care. We have corroborated previous work indicating greater detection of PhaHV-1 with increasing age in koalas and an association between PhaHV-1 and C. pecorum detection. Our work highlights the need for continued surveillance of PhaHV-1 in koala populations to inform management interventions, and targeted research to understand the pathogenesis of PhaHV-1 and determine the impact of infection and co-infection with C. pecorum.

Genomic characterization of Mycoplasma edwardii isolated from a dog bite induced cat wound reveals multiple horizontal gene transfer events and loss of the CRISPR/Cas system.

A domestic short hair cat (Felis catus) suffering from a purulent wound infection resulting from a dog bite was sampled for bacterial culture and isolation as the wound had been unresponsive to prolonged antimicrobial treatment. A mycoplasma was isolated from the wound. Whole genome sequencing of the isolate was performed using short-read Illumina and long-read Oxford Nanopore chemistry, and the organism was identified as Mycoplasma edwardii. Comparison of the genome sequence of the isolate to a reference M. edwardii genome sequence (canid isolate) identified the loss of several key bacterial factors involved in genome editing, as well the insertion of several novel ORFs most closely related to those found in other canine mycoplasmas, specifically Mycoplasma canis, M. cynos, M. molare and M. maculosa. This is only the second known report of disease caused by M. edwardii in a non-canid species, and the first report of it infecting and causing clinical disease in a cat.

Towards a pan marsupial sero-immunological tool in the demanding field of wildlife serology: Marsupial immunoglobulin-binding capability with protein A/G, protein L and anti-kangaroo antibody.

Detection of infections in wildlife species is increasingly important to reduce the risk of spreading zoonotic and economically important parasites, understand disease epidemiology and promote the conservation of wildlife species. Serological tests are key in disease diagnosis and surveillance by detecting immunoglobulins against infectious agents. However, the need for species-specific reagents has limited the application of serological tests in wildlife species. This study evaluated the serum immunoglobulin-binding capability of polyclonal anti-kangaroo antibody and two non-species-specific reagents, including protein A/G and protein L, with the largest range of Australian marsupial species so far, including 32 species representing three major marsupial orders. Immunoglobulin-binding capability was assessed using immunoblotting, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and Western blot techniques. Variation in immunoglobulin-binding capability was observed between the three reagents and across the species tested, both across but also within taxonomic groups. Taxonomic distance was thus not always a good predictor of immunoglobulin-binding affinity, emphasizing the need to validate these reagents for each species separately. However, all three reagents bound with the serum immunoglobulins of most marsupial species tested. The findings of this study provide a valuable reference for species differences in affinity to protein A/G, protein L and anti-kangaroo antibody, assisting in the selection of appropriate reagents and the development of sero-immunological assays in Australian marsupials.

Th-1 cytotoxic cell-mediated response predominates in the tracheal mucosa following Mycoplasma synoviae infection of MS-H-vaccinated chickens.

Mycoplasma synoviae is a pathogen of poultry that causes upper respiratory tract disease. MS-H is a live attenuated temperature-sensitive vaccine that effectively control M. synoviae infection in chickens. However, the mechanisms underpinning protection have not been described previously. In this study, specific-pathogen-free chickens were vaccinated at 3 weeks of age with MS-H vaccine and challenged with field strain M. synoviae 94011/v-18d at 6 weeks of age. Tracheal mucosal inflammation was characterised by the assessment of thickness, histopathological lesions, cellular infiltrates and cytokine transcription. Tracheal lesion scores of unvaccinated-challenged (-V+C) birds were higher than that of vaccinated-challenged (+V+C) birds. +V+C birds displayed early upregulation of IL-4, consistent with a Th-2-skewed response, followed by a later increase in IFN-γ transcription, indicating transition to a Th-1-skewed response. -V+C birds displayed a concurrent early Th-2 and Th-17 response characterised by increase expression of IL-4 and IL-17A respectively, and late T regulatory response characterised by increased IL-10 transcription. +V+C chickens had more cytotoxic T cells (CD8+ T cells) at 7- and 21 days post-challenge (dpc), while -V+C chickens had higher numbers of infiltrating CD4+CD25+ at 7 and 21 dpc. Overall, these observations suggest that the immune response in +V+C chickens had an inflammation characterised by an early Th-2 skewed response followed closely by a Th-1 response and infiltration of cytotoxic T cells, while the response in -V+C chickens was an early Th-2/Th-17-skewed response closely followed by a T regulatory response.

Genomic diversity and natural recombination of equid gammaherpesvirus 5 isolates.

BACKGROUND: Equid gammaherpesvirus 5 (EHV5) is closely related to equid gammaherpesvirus 2 (EHV2). Detection of EHV5 is frequent in horse populations worldwide, but it is often without a clear and significant clinical impact. Infection in horses can often present as subclinical disease; however, it has been associated with respiratory disease, including equine multinodular pulmonary fibrosis (EMPF). Genetic heterogeneity within small regions of the EHV5 glycoprotein B (gB) sequences have been reported and multiple genotypes of this virus have been identified within individual horses, but full genome sequence data for these viruses is limited. The primary focus of this study was to assess the genomic diversity and natural recombination among EHV5 isolates. RESULTS: The genome size of EHV5 prototype strain and the five EHV5 isolates cultured for this study, including four isolates from the same horse, ranged from 181,929 to 183,428 base pairs (bp), with the sizes of terminal repeat regions varying from 0 to 10 bp. The nucleotide sequence identity between the six EHV5 genomes ranged from 95.5 to 99.1%, and the estimated average nucleotide diversity between isolates was 1%. Individual genes displayed varying levels of nucleotide diversity that ranged from 0 to 19%. The analysis of nonsynonymous substitution (Ka > 0.025) revealed high diversity in eight genes. Genome analysis using RDP4 and SplitsTree programs detected evidence of past recombination events between EHV5 isolates. CONCLUSION: Genomic diversity and recombination hotspots were identified among EHV5 strains. Recombination can drive genetic diversity, particularly in viruses that have a low rate of nucleotide substitutions. Therefore, the results from this study suggest that recombination is an important contributing factor to EHV5 genomic diversity. The findings from this study provide additional insights into the genetic heterogeneity of the EHV5 genome.

Development of diagnostic and point of care assays for a gammaherpesvirus infecting koalas.

The recent listing of koala populations as endangered across much of their range has highlighted the need for better management interventions. Disease is a key threat to koala populations but currently there is no information across the threatened populations on the distribution or impact of a gammaherpesvirus, phascolarctid gammaherpesvirus 1 (PhaHV-1). PhaHV-1 is known to infect koalas in southern populations which are, at present, not threatened. Current testing for PhaHV-1 involves lengthy laboratory techniques that do not permit quantification of viral load. In order to better understand distribution, prevalence and impacts of PhaHV-1 infections across koala populations, diagnostic and rapid point of care tests are required. We have developed two novel assays, a qPCR assay and an isothermal assay, that will enable researchers, clinicians and wildlife managers to reliably and rapidly test for PhaHV-1 in koalas. The ability to rapidly diagnose and quantify viral load will aid quarantine practices, inform translocation management and guide research into the clinical significance and impacts of PhaHV-1 infection in koalas.

Molecular characterisation of the Australian and New Zealand livestock Chlamydia pecorum strains confirms novel but clonal ST23 in association with ovine foetal loss.

Chlamydia pecorum is a veterinary pathogen associated with abortions and perinatal mortality in sheep. Recent studies investigating foetal and perinatal lamb mortality in sheep from Australia and New Zealand identified C. pecorum clonal sequence type (ST)23 strains in aborted and stillborn lambs. Presently, there is limited genotypic information on C. pecorum strains associated with reproductive disease, although whole genome sequencing (WGS) of one abortigenic ST23 C. pecorum strain identified unique features, including a deletion in the CDS1 locus of the chlamydial plasmid. We applied WGS on two ST23 strains detected in aborted and stillborn lambs from Australia and used phylogenetic and comparative analyses to compare these to the other available C. pecorum genomes. To re-evaluate the genetic diversity of contemporary strains, we applied C. pecorum genotyping, and chlamydial plasmid sequencing to a range of C. pecorum positive samples and isolates from ewes, aborted foetuses and stillborn lambs, cattle and a goat from diverse geographical regions across Australia and New Zealand.The two new C. pecorum genomes are nearly identical to the genome of the Australian abortigenic strain including the unique deletion in the chlamydial plasmid. Genotyping revealed that these novel C. pecorum ST23 strains are widespread and associated with sheep abortions on Australian and New Zealand farms. In addition, a goat C. pecorum strain (denoted ST 304) from New Zealand was also characterised. This study expands the C. pecorum genome catalogue and describes a comprehensive molecular characterisation of the novel livestock ST23 strains associated with foetal and lamb mortality.

Codon pair bias deoptimization of essential genes in infectious laryngotracheitis virus reduces protein expression.

Infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV; an alphaherpesvirus) is a respiratory pathogen of chickens and causes significant economic losses in the poultry industry globally, in addition to severe animal health and welfare concerns. To date, studying the role of ILTV genes in viral infection, replication or pathogenesis has largely been limited to genes that can be deleted from the ILTV genome and the resultant deletion mutants characterized in vitro or in vivo. However, this approach is not suitable for the study of essential genes. This study trialled two different codon deoptimization techniques that aimed to separately disrupt and downregulate the expression of two ILTV genes, ICP8 and UL12, which are essential or very important in viral replication. The target genes were partially recoded using codon usage deoptimization (CUD) and codon pair bias deoptimization (CPBD) approaches and characterized in vitro. Viruses deoptimized via CPBD showed decreased protein expression as assessed by Western blotting and/or fluorescence microscopy to measure the intensity of the fluorescent marker fused to the target protein. Viruses deoptimized by CUD showed less consistent results, with some mutants that could not be generated or isolated. The results indicate that CPBD is an attractive and viable tool for the study of essential or critically important genes in ILTV. This is the first study, to our knowledge, that utilizes CPBD and CUD techniques for the study of ILTV genes.

Virulence factors of Mycoplasma synoviae: Three genes influencing colonization, immunogenicity, and transmissibility.

Infections caused by Mycoplasma synoviae are major welfare and economic concerns in poultry industries worldwide. These infections cause chronic respiratory disease and/or synovitis in chickens and turkeys leading to reduced production and increased mortality rates. The live attenuated vaccine strain MS-H (Vaxsafe® MS), commonly used for protection against M. synoviae infection in many countries, contains 32 single nucleotide variations compared to its wildtype parent strain, 86079/7NS. Genomic analysis of vaccine strains reisolated from flocks following the administration of MS-H has identified reversions to the original 86079/7NS sequence in the obgE, oppF and gapdh genes. Here, three MS-H field reisolates containing the 86079/7NS genotype in obgE (AS2), obgE and oppF (AB1), and obgE, oppF and gapdh (TS4), as well as the vaccine MS-H and the parental strain 86079/7NS were experimentally inoculated to chickens. The strains were assessed for their ability to infect and elicit immune responses in the recipient chickens, as well as in naïve in-contact chickens. Despite the loss of temperature sensitivity phenotype and colonization of the reisolates in the lower respiratory tract, there was no significant differences detected in the microscopic mucosal thickness of the middle or lower trachea of the inoculated chickens. Concurrent reversions in ObgE, OppF and GAPDH proteins were associated with higher gross air sac lesion scores and increased microscopic upper-tracheal mucosal thickness in chickens directly inoculated with the reisolates following intratracheal administration of a virulent strain of infectious bronchitis virus. The gross air sac lesions of the chickens in-contact with those inoculated with reisolates were not significantly different to those of chickens in-contact with MS-H inoculated chickens, suggesting that horizontal transmission of the reisolates in the poultry flock will not lead to higher pathogenicity or clinical signs. These results suggest a significant role of GAPDH and/or cumulative effect of ObgE, OppF and GAPDH on M. synoviae pathogenicity. Future experiments will be required to investigate the effect of single mutations in gapdh or oppF gene on pathogenicity of M. synoviae.

Construction and characterisation of glycoprotein E and glycoprotein I deficient mutants of Australian strains of infectious laryngotracheitis virus using traditional and CRISPR/Cas9-assisted homologous recombination techniques.

In alphaherpesviruses, glycoproteins E and I (gE and gI, respectively) form a heterodimer that facilitates cell-to-cell spread of virus. Using traditional homologous recombination techniques, as well as CRISPR/Cas9-assisted homologous recombination, we separately deleted gE and gI coding sequences from an Australian field strain (CSW-1) and a vaccine strain (A20) of infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV) and replaced each coding sequence with sequence encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP). Virus mutants in which gE and gI gene sequences had been replaced with GFP were identified by fluorescence microscopy but were unable to be propagated separately from the wildtype virus in either primary chicken cells or the LMH continuous chicken cell line. These findings build on findings from a previous study of CSW-1 ILTV in which a double deletion mutant of gE and gI could not be propagated separately from wildtype virus and produced an in vivo phenotype of single-infected cells with no cell-to-cell spread observed. Taken together these studies suggest that both the gE and gI genes have a significant role in cell-to-cell spread in both CSW-1 and A20 strains of ILTV. The CRISPR/Cas9-assisted deletion of genes from the ILTV genome described in this study adds this virus to a growing list of viruses to which this approach has been used to study viral gene function.

Tracheal cellular immune response in chickens inoculated with Mycoplasma synoviae vaccine, MS-H or its parent strain 86079/7NS.

Mycoplasma synoviae causes respiratory tract disease in chickens characterised by mild to moderate lymphoplasmacytic infiltration of the tracheal mucosa. MS-H (Vaxsafe1 MS, Bioproperties Pty Ltd.) is an effective live attenuated vaccine for M. synoviae, but the immunological basis for its mechanism of protection has not been investigated, and the phenotypes of lymphocytes and associated cytokines involved in the local adaptive immune response have not been described previously. In this study, specific-pathogen-free chickens were inoculated intra-ocularly at 3 weeks of age with either M. synoviae vaccine strain MS-H or vaccine parent strain 86079/7NS (7NS), or remained uninoculated. At 2-, 7- and 21 days post-inoculation (dpi), tracheal mucosal pathology, infiltrating lymphocytes subsets and transcription levels of mRNA encoding 8 cytokines were assessed using light microscopy, indirect immunofluorescent staining and RT-qPCR, respectively. After inoculation, tracheal mucosal thickness, tracheal mucosal lesions, and numbers of infiltrating CD4+CD25- cells, B-cells, and macrophages were greater in MS-H- and 7NS-inoculated chickens compared with non-inoculated. Inoculation with 7NS induced up-regulation of IFN-γ, while vaccination with MS-H induced up-regulation of IL-17A, when compared with non-inoculated birds. Both inoculated groups had a moderate infiltrate of CD4+CD25+ T cells in the tracheal mucosa. These findings reveal that the tracheal local cellular response after MS-H inoculation is dominated by a Th-17 response, while that of 7NS-inoculated chickens is dominated by a Th-1 type response.

Whole genome sequence analysis of equid gammaherpesvirus -2 field isolates reveals high levels of genomic diversity and recombination.

BACKGROUND: Equid gammaherpesvirus 2 (EHV2) is a gammaherpesvirus with a widespread distribution in horse populations globally. Although its pathogenic significance can be unclear in most cases of infection, EHV2 infection can cause upper respiratory tract disease in foals. Co-infection of different strains of EHV2 in an individual horse is common. Small regions of the EHV2 genome have shown considerable genetic heterogeneity. This could suggest genomic recombination between different strains of EHV2, similar to the extensive recombination networks that have been demonstrated for some alphaherpesviruses. This study examined natural recombination and genome diversity of EHV2 field isolates. RESULTS: Whole genome sequencing analysis of 18 EHV2 isolates, along with analysis of two publicly available EHV2 genomes, revealed variation in genomes sizes (from 173.7 to 184.8 kbp), guanine plus cytosine content (from 56.7 to 57.8%) and the size of the terminal repeat regions (from 17,196 to 17,551 bp). The nucleotide sequence identity between the genomes ranged from 86.2 to 99.7%. The estimated average inter-strain nucleotide diversity between the 20 EHV2 genomes was 2.9%. Individual gene sequences showed varying levels of nucleotide diversity and ranged between 0 and 38.1%. The ratio of nonsynonymous substitutions, Ka, to synonymous substitutions, Ks, (Ka/Ks) suggests that over 50% of EHV2 genes are undergoing diversifying selection. Recombination analyses of the 20 EHV2 genome sequences using the recombination detection program (RDP4) and SplitsTree revealed evidence of viral recombination. CONCLUSIONS: Analysis of the 18 new EHV2 genomes alongside the 2 previously sequenced genomes revealed a high degree of genetic diversity and extensive recombination networks. Herpesvirus genome diversification and virus evolution can be driven by recombination, and our findings are consistent with recombination being a key mechanism by which EHV2 genomes may vary and evolve.

ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Herpesviridae 2021.

Members of the family Herpesviridae have enveloped, spherical virions with characteristic complex structures consisting of symmetrical and non-symmetrical components. The linear, double-stranded DNA genomes of 125-241 kbp contain 70-170 genes, of which 43 have been inherited from an ancestral herpesvirus. In general, herpesviruses have coevolved with and are highly adapted to their hosts, which comprise many mammalian, avian and reptilian species. Following primary infection, they are able to establish lifelong latent infection, during which there is limited viral gene expression. Severe disease is usually observed only in the foetus, the very young, the immunocompromised or following infection of an alternative host. This is a summary of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) Report on the family Herpesviridae, which is available at ictv.global/report/herpesviridae.

Mucosal immune responses in the trachea after chronic infection with Mycoplasma gallisepticum in unvaccinated and vaccinated mature chickens.

Tracheitis associated with the chronic respiratory disease in chickens caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum is marked by infiltration of leukocytes into the mucosa. Although cytokines/chemokines are known to play a key role in the recruitment, differentiation, and proliferation of leukocytes, those that are produced and secreted into the trachea during the chronic stages of infection with M. gallisepticum have not been described previously. In this study, the levels of transcription in the trachea of genes encoding a panel of 13 cytokines/chemokines were quantified after experimental infection with the M. gallisepticum wild-type strain Ap3AS in unvaccinated chickens and chickens vaccinated 40-, 48- or 57-weeks previously with the novel attenuated strain ts-304. These transcriptional levels in unvaccinated/infected and vaccinated/infected chickens were compared with those of unvaccinated/uninfected and vaccinated/uninfected chickens. Pathological changes and subsets of leukocytes infiltrating the tracheal mucosa were concurrently assessed by histopathological examination and indirect immunofluorescent staining. After infection, unvaccinated birds had a significant increase in tracheal mucosal thickness and in transcription of genes for cytokines/chemokines, including those for IFN-γ, IL-17, RANTES (CCLi4), and CXCL-14, and significant downregulation of IL-2 gene transcription. B cells, CD3+ or CD4+ cells and macrophages (KUL01+ ) accumulated in the mucosa but CD8+ cells were not detected. In vaccinated birds, the levels of transcription of the genes for IL-6, IL-2, RANTES and CXCL-14 were significantly lower after infection than in the unvaccinated/infected and/or unvaccinated/uninfected birds, while the transcription of the IFN-γ gene was significantly upregulated, and there were aggregations of B cells in the tracheal mucosa. These observations indicated that M. gallisepticum may have suppressed Th2 responses by upregulating secretion of IFN-γ and IL-17 by CD4+ cells and induced immune dysregulation characterized by depletion of CD8+ cells and downregulation of IL-2 in the tracheas of unvaccinated birds. The ts-304 vaccine appeared to induce long-term protection against this immune dysregulation. TAKE AWAY: The ts-304 vaccine-induced long-term protection against immune dysregulation caused by M. gallisepticum Detection of B cells and plasma cells in the tracheal mucosa suggested that long-term protection is mediated by mucosal B cell memory Infection of unvaccinated birds with M. gallisepticum resulted in CD8+ cell depletion and downregulation of IL-2 in the tracheal mucosa, suggestive of immune dysregulation Infection of unvaccinated birds with M. gallisepticum resulted in upregulation of IFN-γ and infiltration of CD4+ cells and antigen presenting cells (B and KUL01+ cells) into the tracheal mucosa, suggesting enhanced antigen processing and presentation during chronic infection Th2 responses to infection with M. gallisepticum may be dampened by CD4+ cells through upregulation of IFN-γ and IL-17 during chronic infection.

A WIDESPREAD NOVEL GAMMAHERPESVIRUS IN APPARENTLY HEALTHY WILD QUOKKAS (SETONIX BRACHYURUS): A THREATENED AND ENDEMIC WALLABY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

Five genetically distinct macropodid marsupial herpesviruses have been reported [Macropodid alphaherpesviruses 1 and 2 (MaHV-1 and -2); Macropodid herpesviruses 3 to 5 (MaHV-3 to -5)]. MaHV-2 was originally isolated from an outbreak of fatal disease in captive quokkas (Setonix brachyurus) that were in contact with other macropodid species. This warranted a survey of the presence of herpesviruses in this threatened and endemic Western Australian (WA) wallaby. Blood samples from 142 apparently healthy quokkas were tested for exposure to MaHV-1 and -2 by serology. Of these 142, 121 [Rottnest Island (RI), n = 93; mainland WA, n = 28] were tested for herpesvirus infection by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Antibodies to MaHV-1 and -2 were detected in one individual [prevalence, 0.7%; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.1%-3.2%] from the mainland and none from RI. However, a novel gammaherpesvirus [designated Macropodid herpesvirus 6 (MaHV-6)] was detected by PCR in the blood of 13 of 121 individuals (11%; 95% CI, 6.2-17.2). Infection with MaHV-6 was significantly more prevalent on the mainland (7/28; i.e., 25%) compared with RI (6/93; i.e., 6.45%; difference in sample proportions, 95% CI, 6%-32%; P = 0.015). There was no association (P > 0.05) between infection with MaHV-6 and differences in hematology, blood chemistry, peripheral blood cell morphologies, or on clinical status. There was a significant association between infection with MaHV-6 and the presence of Theileria spp. in blood [odds ratio (OR) = 11.0; 95% CI, 2.31-52.3; P = 0.001] and yeast in the nasal lining (OR = 7.0; 95% CI, 1.54-31.8; P = 0.021), suggesting that quokkas may be more susceptible to infection with these microorganisms if also infected with MaHV-6. MaHV-6 infection may be a catalyst for vulnerability to disease with other infectious agents and may pose a significant threat to other macropods. These findings have implications for in situ and ex situ management programs of quokkas.

Herpesvirus Infection in Lumholtz's Tree-Kangaroo (Dendrolagus lumholtzi).

Herpesvirus infections associated with a range of clinical findings are widespread in free-ranging and captive Australian marsupials. We report on herpesviruses identified by virus neutralization and PCR in free-ranging and captive Lumholtz's tree-kangaroos (Dendrolagus lumholtzi). Herpesvirus has not been confirmed previously by DNA testing in tree kangaroos. Virus neutralization testing for alphaherpesviruses MaHV1 and MaHV2 was positive on 4/10 captive and 0/35 free-ranging tree-kangaroo samples tested. A novel gammaherpesvirus was found on PCR in 17/20 apparently healthy individuals (11/12 free-ranging, 5/6 wild-caught, captive, and 1/2 captive-bred). One captive-bred animal that died following an acute illness was positive on PCR only for MaHV4, an alphaherpesvirus previously identified from an eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus). The detection of MaHV4, associated with morbidity and mortality in captive tree-kangaroos, raises biosecurity concerns about introducing a non-endemic alphaherpesvirus into naive wild populations through release of captive animals. We propose that: 1) further work on herpesviruses in marsupials be carried out to determine whether herpesviruses from captive individuals represent a potential threat to wild populations, particularly for endangered species in which there are captive breeding and cross-fostering programs; and 2) that captive tree kangaroos be kept in such a way that prevents cross-species transmission of herpesviruses, in particular eliminating close direct or indirect contact with other species of macropods.

Genomic recombination between infectious laryngotracheitis vaccine strains occurs under a broad range of infection conditions in vitro and in ovo.

Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1 causes infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) in farmed poultry worldwide. Intertypic recombination between vaccine strains of this virus has generated novel and virulent isolates in field conditions. In this study, in vitro and in ovo systems were co-infected and superinfected under different conditions with two genomically distinct and commonly used ILTV vaccines. The progeny virus populations were examined for the frequency and pattern of recombination events using multi-locus high-resolution melting curve analysis of polymerase chain reaction products. A varied level of recombination (0 to 58.9%) was detected, depending on the infection system (in ovo or in vitro), viral load, the composition of the inoculum mixture, and the timing and order of infection. Full genome analysis of selected recombinants with different in vitro phenotypes identified alterations in coding and non-coding regions. The ability of ILTV vaccines to maintain their capacity to recombine under such varied conditions highlights the significance of recombination in the evolution of this virus and demonstrates the capacity of ILTV vaccines to play a role in the emergence of recombinant viruses.

BASELINE HEALTH AND DISEASE ASSESSMENT OF FOUNDER EASTERN QUOLLS (DASYURUS VIVERRINUS) DURING A CONSERVATION TRANSLOCATION TO MAINLAND AUSTRALIA.

We evaluated the health of 31 (eight males, 23 females) founder eastern quolls (Dasyurus viverrinus), translocated to a fenced reserve in the Australian Capital Territory between February 2016 and July 2017. Quolls were wild caught in Tasmania (16 animals) or captive bred at Mount Rothwell Biodiversity Interpretation Centre, Victoria (15 animals). Quolls were assessed for the presence of selected potential pathogens (Toxoplasma gondii, herpesviruses, Salmonella serovars, hemoprotozoa, and ectoparasites). We assessed the relationships among sex, provenance (captive or free ranging), T. gondii or herpesvirus infection, weight, and hematologic and biochemical variables. Six of 21 quolls (29%) tested were seropositive for antibodies to T. gondii. Seropositive quolls weighed significantly more and had significantly lower potassium levels, anion gaps, and urea and triglyceride levels than seronegative quolls had. Eighteen of 31 (58%) combined conjunctival-pharyngeal-cloacal swabs collected from quolls were PCR positive for a newly identified gammaherpesvirus, tentatively named dasyurid gammaherpesvirus 3. There were no significant differences among hematologic and biochemical variables or body weights from PCR-positive and PCR-negative quolls. Eighteen of 18 (100%) of rectal-swab samples were culture negative for Salmonella serovars. Three species of tick (Ixodes tasmani, Ixodes fecialis, and Ixodes holocyclus), two species of mite (Andreacus radfordi, one unidentified), and four species of flea (Pygiopsylla hoplia, Acanthopsylla rothschildi rothschildi, Uropsylla tasmanica, and Stephanocircus dasyuri), were detected on wild-caught quolls, whereas a fifth species of flea, Echidnophaga myremecobii, was detected only on captive-bred quolls. Five of 15 blood samples (33%) were positive for hemoprotozoan DNA via PCR, a novel Hepatozoon species, a novel Theileria species, Theileria paparinii, and Trypanosoma copemani were detected. Despite the presence of several potential pathogens known to be associated with disease in other marsupials, the quolls were considered to be in good general health, suitable for translocation, and a viable population was subsequently established.

Disease surveillance in wild Victorian cacatuids reveals co-infection with multiple agents and detection of novel avian viruses.

Wild birds are known reservoirs of bacterial and viral pathogens, some of which have zoonotic potential. This poses a risk to both avian and human health, since spillover into domestic bird populations may occur. In Victoria, wild-caught cockatoos trapped under licence routinely enter commercial trade. The circovirus Beak and Feather Disease Virus (BFDV), herpesviruses, adenoviruses and Chlamydia psittaci have been identified as significant pathogens of parrots globally, with impacts on both aviculture and the conservation efforts of endangered species. In this study, we describe the results of surveillance for psittacid herpesviruses (PsHVs), psittacine adenovirus (PsAdV), BFDV and C. psittaci in wild cacatuids in Victoria, Australia. Samples were collected from 55 birds of four species, and tested using genus or family-wide polymerase chain reaction methods coupled with sequencing and phylogenetic analyses for detection and identification of known and novel pathogens. There were no clinically observed signs of illness in most of the live birds in this study (96.3%; n = 53). Beak and Feather Disease Virus was detected with a prevalence of 69.6% (95% CI 55.2-80.9). Low prevalences of PsHV (1.81%; 95% CI 0.3-9.6), PsAdV (1.81%; 95% CI 0.3-9.6), and C. psittaci (1.81%; 95% CI 0.3-9.6) was detected. Importantly, a novel avian alphaherpesvirus and a novel avian adenovirus were detected in a little corella (Cacatua sanguinea) co-infected with BFDV and C. psittaci. The presence of multiple potential pathogens detected in a single bird presents an example of the ease with which such infectious agents may enter the pet trade and how novel viruses circulating in wild populations have the potential for transmission into captive birds. Genomic identification of previously undescribed avian viruses is important to further our understanding of their epidemiology, facilitating management of biosecurity aspects of the domestic and international bird trade, and conservation efforts of vulnerable species.